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Software Images icon An illustration of two photographs. Click here to sign up. Download Free PDF. Muhammad Solo. A short summary of this paper. All rights reserved. Published simultaneously in Canada. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise, except as permitted under Section or of the United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA , , fax This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information in regard to the subject matter covered.
It is sold with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. If professional advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional person should be sought.
Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books. For more information about Wiley products, visit our web site at www. Includes index. ISBN 0—— 1. Architectural drawing. Title NA C46 '. The prime objective behind its original formation and subsequent revisions was to provide a clear, concise, and illustrative guide to the creation and use of architectural graphics.
While retaining the clarity and visual approach of the earlier editions, this fourth edition of Architectural Graphics incorporates several significant changes. The tactile, kinesthetic process of crafting lines on a sheet of paper with a pen or pencil is the most sensible medium for learning the graphic language of drawing.
Chapters 1 and 2, therefore, remain introductions to the essential tools and techniques of drawing and drafting by hand. However, this text, in its explanations and examples, acknowledges the unique opportunities and challenges digital technology offers in the production of architectural graphics. Whether a drawing is executed by hand or developed with the aid of a computer, the standards and judgments governing the effective communication of design ideas in architecture remain the same.
Another change is the division of the original lengthy chapter on architectural drawing conventions into four separate chapters. Chapter 3 now serves as an introduction to the three principal systems of pictorial representation— multiview, paraline, and perspective drawings—and analyzes in a comparative manner the unique viewpoints and advantages afforded by each system. Chapters 4, 5, and 6 then focus on the principles governing the conventions and uses of each of the three drawing systems.
The language of architectural graphics relies on the power of a composition of lines to convey the illusion of a three-dimensional construction or spatial environment on a two-dimensional surface, be it a sheet of paper or a computer screen. Although the line is the quintessential element of all drawing, Chapter 7 demonstrates techniques for creating tonal values and develops strategies for their use in enhancing the pictorial depth of architectural drawings.
Chapter 8 extends the role of rendering to defining scale and establishing context in the drawing of design proposals. Chapter 9 continues to examine the fundamental principles of graphic communication and illustrate the strategic choices available in the planning and layout of architectural presentations.
Incorporated into this discussion is the original chapter on lettering and graphic symbols, which are informative and essential elements to be considered in preparing any presentation. Chapter 10 therefore includes additional instruction on freehand sketching and diagramming, and occupies a terminal position to reflect its importance as a graphic skill and design tool.
Despite these incremental changes, the fundamental premise of this text endures—drawing has the power to overcome the flatness of a two-dimensional surface and represent three-dimensional ideas in architecture in a clear, legible, and convincing manner.
To unlock this power requires the ability both to execute and to read the graphic language of drawing. Drawing is not simply a matter of technique; it is also a cognitive act that involves visual perception, judgment, and reasoning of spatial dimensions and relationships.
While digital technology continues to augment and enhance this traditional drawing toolkit, hand drawing with a pen or pencil remains the most direct and versatile means of learning the language of architectural graphics. This sleeve should be long enough to clear the edges of drafting triangles and straightedges. All three styles of pencils are capable of producing quality line drawings. As you try each type out, you will gradually develop a preference for the characteristic feel, weight, and balance of a particular instrument as you draw.
The texture and density of a drawing surface affect how hard or soft a pencil lead feels. The more tooth or roughness a surface has, the harder the lead you should use; the more dense a surface is, the softer a lead feels. Graphite Leads Grades of graphite lead for drawing on paper surfaces range from 9H extremely hard to 6B extremely soft.
Given equal hand pressure, harder leads produce lighter and thinner lines, whereas softer leads produce denser, wider lines. Colored Leads Nonphoto blue leads are used for guidelines that will not reproduce on photocopiers. Test prints are therefore always advisable when using either nonphoto or nonprint leads.
Plastic Leads Specially formulated plastic polymer leads are available for drawing on drafting film. As with lead holders and mechanical pencils, technical pens from different manufacturers vary in form and operation. Most technical pens, however, utilize an ink-flow-regulating wire within a tubular nib, the size of which determines the width of the ink line.
There are a dozen point sizes available, from extremely fine 6 x 0, equivalent to 0. Stainless-steel tips are satisfactory for drawing on vellum but wear too quickly on drafting film. Tungsten or jewel tips are required for drafting on film. Digital Stylus The digital equivalent of the pen and pencil is the stylus. Used with a digitizing tablet and appropriate software, it replaces the mouse and enables the user to draw in a freehand manner. Some models and software are able to detect and respond to the amount of hand pressure to mimic more realistically the effects of traditional media.
This head slides along the edge of a drawing board as a guide in establishing and drawing straight parallel lines. T-squares are relatively low in cost and portable but require a straight and true edge against which their heads can slide. Parallel Rules Parallel rules are equipped with a system of cables and pulleys that allows their straightedges to move across a drawing board only in a parallel manner.
Parallel rules are more expensive and less portable than T-squares but enable one to draft with greater speed and accuracy. Metal T-squares are available for this purpose. Some models are available with metal cutting edges. The 48" length is recommended. See page Fluorescent orange acrylic triangles are also available for greater visibility on the drafting surface. Some triangles have raised edges for inking with technical pens. Adjustable Triangles Adjustable triangles have a movable leg that is held in place with a thumbscrew and a scale for measuring angles.
These instruments are useful for drawing such inclined lines as the slope of a stair or the pitch of a roof. Electronic Templates Drawing and CAD programs include electronic templates of geometric shapes, furnishings, fixtures, as well as user-defined elements. The purpose of physical and electronic templates remains the same— to save time when drawing repetitive elements.
A significant advantage of CAD programs is their ability to have a symbol represent all instances of a graphic element or object in a drawing or design, such as the dimensions of a window opening or a unit plan in a housing project. Metric sizes are also available. Using too hard a grade of lead can therefore result in too light of a line. A softer grade of lead, sharpened to a chisel point, will usually produce the sharpest line without undue pressure.
A chisel point dulls easily, however, and must be sharpened often. Always use the softest eraser compatible with the medium and the drawing surface. Avoid using abrasive ink erasers. Compact, battery-operated models are especially handy. If used too heavily, the powder can cause lines to skip, so use sparingly, if at all. Erasing Shields Erasing shields have cutouts of various shapes and sizes to confine the area of a drawing to be erased. These thin stainlesssteel shields are especially effective in protecting the drawing surface while using an electric eraser.
Ones that have squarecut holes allow the erasure of precise areas of a drawing. The term also applies to any of various instruments having one or more sets of precisely graduated and numbered spaces for measuring, reading, or transferring dimensions and distances in a drawing.
Metric Scales Metric scales consist of one or more sets of graduated and numbered spaces, each set establishing a proportion of one millimeter to a specified number of millimeters. In digital drawing, we actually input information in real-world units, but we should distinguish between the size of the image seen on a monitor and the scale of the output from a printer or plotter. Do not use normal masking tape, which can tear the paper surface upon removal.
Tracing Papers Tracing papers are characterized by transparency, whiteness, and tooth or surface grain. Fine-tooth papers are generally better for inking, whereas medium-tooth papers are more suitable for pencil work. While these levels or categories can be thought of and used as the digital equivalent of tracing paper, they offer more possibilities for manipulating and editing the information they contain than do the physical layers of tracing paper.
And once entered and stored, digital information is easier to copy, transfer, and share than traditional drawings. Illustration Boards Illustration boards have a paper facing laminated to a cardboard backing. Cut edges are therefore consistently white in color, making them useful for constructing architectural models.
Drawing a line with a pen or pencil incorporates a kinesthetic sense of direction and length, and is a tactile act that feeds back into the mind in a way that reinforces the structure of the resulting graphic image. This chapter describes techniques and pointers for drafting lines, constructing geometric figures and shapes, and performing such operations as subdividing a given length into a number of equal parts.
Understanding these procedures will result in more efficient and systematic representation of architectural and engineering structures; many are often useful in freehand sketching as well. Controlling the pen or pencil is the key to producing good line quality and proper line weights.
Further, it is a kinesthetic act wherein the movements of the hand and eye correspond to the line produced. It is essential that, as you draw, you understand what each line represents, whether it be an edge of a plane, a change in material, or simply a construction guideline. The following types of lines, typically used to make architectural graphics easier to read and interpret, are categorized according to their geometric patterns.
The relative weight of a solid line varies according to its role in conveying depth. See pages 42, 58, 70, and Line weight is therefore primarily a matter of width or thickness. Strive to make all pencil lines uniformly dense and vary their width to achieve differing line weights.
In either case, what one sees on a monitor may not match the output from a printer or plotter. In some programs, line weights are represented on the monitor by colors rather than differences in line width. One should therefore always run a test print or plot to ascertain whether or not the resulting range and contrasts in the line weights of a drawing are appropriate.
Note, however, that if changes in line weight are necessary, it is often much easier to make them in a digital drawing than in a hand drawing. Judgment of line quality in a digital drawing must be deferred until one sees the actual output from a printer or plotter. If you use a sandpaper pad to sharpen leads, slant the lead at a low angle to achieve the correct taper. Do not push the pen or pencil as if it were a cue stick.
Doing so dirties the equipment and causes blotting of ink lines. This will help prevent a line from feathering or fading out along its length. Applying slight additional pressure at the beginning and ending of a stroke will help accomplish this. Achieving the desired line weight, however, may require drawing a series of closely spaced lines. The transparency of the tracing paper helps maintain a visual connection to the context of the drawing.
The successive repetition of short lengths or measurements can often result in an accumulation of minute errors. It is therefore advantageous to be able to subdivide an overall length into a number of equal parts. Being able to subdivide any given length in this manner is useful for constructing the risers and runs of a stairway, as well as for establishing the coursing of such construction as a tiled floor or masonry wall. Using an angle that is too acute would make it difficult to ascertain the exact point of intersection.
Digital Drawing This and many other drafting techniques are programmed into drawing and CAD software. The process of working from the general to the specific, from the larger whole to the smaller parts, however, remains the same. For other angles, use a protractor or an adjustable triangle. The diagrams to the left illustrate how to construct three common geometric shapes.
Digital Drawing In digital drawing, we create lines and shapes by designating geometric coordinates or specifying a combination of location, direction, and distance. Snap-to commands, grids, guidelines, and symbol libraries further aid the drawing of electronic lines and shapes. Three distinct types of drawing systems have evolved over time to accomplish this mission: multiview, paraline, and perspective drawings. This chapter describes these three major drawing systems, the principles behind their construction, and their resulting pictorial characteristics.
The discussion does not include media that involve motion and animation, made possible by computer technology. Nevertheless, these visual systems of representation constitute a formal graphic language that is governed by a consistent set of principles. Understanding these principles and related conventions is the key to creating and reading architectural drawings. These projectors are also called sightlines in perspective projection. Three distinct projection systems result from the relationship of the projectors to each other as well as to the picture plane.
Once the information for a three-dimensional construction or environment has been entered into a computer, 3D CAD and modeling software can theoretically present the information in any of these projection systems. The terminology, however, may differ from what is presented here. When we study how each projection system represents the same subject, we can see how different pictorial effects result. We categorize these pictorial systems into multiview drawings, paraline drawings, and perspective drawings.
Parallel projectors therefore represent these major faces in their true size, shape, and proportions. This is the greatest advantage of using orthographic projections—to be able to describe facets of a form parallel to the picture plane without foreshortening. Ambiguity of depth is inherent in any orthographic projection, as the third dimension is flattened onto the picture plane.
Only by looking at related orthographic projections can this information be discerned. In architectural drawing, top views are called plans. In architectural drawing, front and side views are called elevations. The top or plan view revolves upward to a position directly above and vertically aligned with the front or elevation view, while the side view revolves to align horizontally with the front view.
The result is a coherent set of related orthographic views. Only by looking at related orthographic projections are we able to understand the three-dimensional form of each object. We should therefore study and represent threedimensional forms and constructions through a series of related orthographic projections. Properly speaking, any orthographic projection is a paraline drawing. Conversely, nonaxial lines are never scalable. Strictly speaking, axonometric projection is a form of orthographic projection in which the projectors are parallel to each other and perpendicular to the picture plane.
The difference between orthographic multiview drawings and an axonometric single-view drawing is simply the orientation of the object to the picture plane.
A principal face or set of planes of the subject is usually oriented parallel to the picture plane and is therefore represented in accurate size, shape, and proportion. In architectural drawing, there are two principal types of oblique drawings: plan obliques and elevation obliques. These horizontal planes are therefore shown in true size and shape, while the two principal sets of vertical planes are foreshortened.
This set is therefore shown in true size and shape, while the other vertical set and the principal horizontal set of planes are both foreshortened.
Unlike the parallel projectors in orthographic and oblique projections, the projectors or sightlines in perspective projection converge at this station point. Pictorial Characteristics of Perspective Drawings The converging sightlines in perspective give rise to the two principal pictorial characteristics of perspective drawings: convergence of parallel lines and reduced size with distance.
We can view the drawings from various angles and be comfortable in reading the objective information. Our eyes can roam over the expanse of a plan or paraline drawing and be able to correctly interpret the graphic information.
There is an ongoing question regarding how to use these capabilities to simulate more effectively the way we experience space. At these scales, the degree of convergence of parallel lines is so slight that a paraline view is usually a better and more efficient choice. No one drawing can ever reveal everything about its subject. The choice of a particular drawing system influences how we view the resulting graphic image, establishes which design issues are made visible for evaluation and scrutiny, and directs how we are inclined to think about the subject of the drawing.
In selecting one drawing system over another, therefore, we make conscious as well as unconscious choices about what to reveal as well as what to conceal. These advantages arise from the ability to undo an action or series of operations, or to save one version of a drawing while working on a copy and return to the saved version if necessary. Even digital printers and plotters have paper size limitations. The scale of a drawing determines how much detail can be included in the graphic image.
Conversely, how much detail is desirable determines how large or small the scale of a drawing should be. Digital Scale Resizing or rescaling a set of digital data is fairly easy to accomplish. Printing or plotting a small-scale drawing that contains too much data, however, can result in an image that is too dense to read. Design drawings, therefore, focus on illustrating and clarifying the essential solid-void nature of forms and spaces, scale and proportional relationships, and other sensible qualities of space.
For these reasons, design drawings convey information primarily through graphic means. Construction drawings, on the other hand, are intended to instruct the builder or fabricator about the implementation or construction of a design.
These contract drawings, which constitute part of a legal document, often rely on abstract conventions and include dimensions, notes, and specifications. Each is an orthographic projection of a particular aspect of a three-dimensional object or construction. These orthographic views are abstract in the sense that they do not match optical reality. They are a conceptual form of representation based on what we know about something rather than on the way it might appear to the eye.
In architectural design, multiview drawings establish twodimensional fields on which we are able to study formal and spatial patterns as well as scalar and proportional relationships in a composition. The ability to regulate size, placement, and configuration also makes multiview drawings useful in communicating the graphic information necessary for the description, fabrication, and construction of a design.
Each orthographic view represents a different orientation and a particular vantage point from which to view the object. Each plays a specific role in the development and communication of a design. They represent a view looking down on an object, building, or scene from above.
Note especially that plans are unable to provide precise information about the vertical dimensions of forms and spaces. Conversely, all planes that are curved or oblique to the horizontal plane of projection are foreshortened. The floor plan is an orthographic projection of the portion that remains. The normal convention is to orient floor plans with north facing up or upward on the drawing sheet. Although this sequence can vary, depending on the nature of the building design being drawn, always try to proceed from the most continuous, regulating elements to those that are contained or defined by the elements.
It is therefore important to emphasize in a graphic way what is cut in a floor plan, and to differentiate the cut material from what we can see through space below the plane of the cut. It is drawn with a single line weight.
As a profile line, this cut line must be continuous; it can never intersect another cut line or terminate at a line of lesser weight. The farther away a horizontal surface is from the plane of the plan cut, the lighter the line weight. These lines do not signify any change in form; they simply represent the visual pattern or texture of the floor plane and other horizontal surfaces.
Smallscale drawings utilize a tighter range of line weights than do large-scale drawings. This is especially important in large-scale plans, when large areas of black can carry too much visual weight or create too stark a contrast. The primary emphasis should remain on articulating the plan cut and the relative depth of elements below the plane of the cut.
For this information, we must rely on elevations. What a floor plan does show, however, are the location and width of door openings, and to a limited degree, the door jambs and type of door operation—whether a door swings, slides, or folds open.
Be sure that the door width matches that of the door opening. A floor plan does disclose the location and width of window openings, and to a limited degree the presence of window jambs and mullions. They should therefore be drawn with a lighter line weight than walls, window mullions, and other cut elements. Dashed lines may also disclose the hidden lines of features concealed from view by other opaque elements. Digital Scale In computer graphics, a small-scale drawing that contains too much data can result in an unnecessarily large file as well as a printed or plotted image that is too dense to read.
The larger scale enables information about floor finishes, fittings, and trim work to be included. Conversely, the larger the scale of a floor plan, the more detail we should include.
This attention to detail is most critical when drawing the thicknesses of construction materials and assemblies that are cut in the plan view. A general knowledge of how buildings are constructed is therefore extremely beneficial when executing large-scale floor plans.
For this reason, we usually call this view a reflected ceiling plan. As with floor plans, it is important to profile all vertical elements that rise to meet the ceiling. On a site plan, however, it is difficult to describe the vertical aspect of an undulating ground surface. Contour lines are the graphic convention we use to convey this information.
For example, a 15' contour line represents every point that is 15' above a given datum or reference point. The trajectory of each contour line indicates the shape of the land formation at that elevation. The larger the area and the steeper the slopes, the greater the interval between contours. We can discern the topographical nature of a site by reading this horizontal spacing.
They may coincide in a plan view only when they cut across a vertical surface. One method produces a stepped model that preserves the visibility of contour lines and intervals.
Another creates a warped plane or mesh for shading, consisting of polygonal, usually triangular, faces. At these larger scales, a site plan will usually include the first- or ground-floor plan of the building in order to illustrate relationships between interior and outdoor spaces. Whenever possible, north should be oriented up or upward on the drawing sheet or board. This approach is especially appropriate when the way in which the roofing material of the building is indicated will establish a tonal value and texture against which the surrounding context must contrast.
It opens up the object to reveal its internal material, composition, or assembly. In theory, the plane of the section cut may have any orientation. But in order to distinguish a section drawing from a floor plan—the other type of drawing that involves a slice—we usually assume the plane of the cut for a section is vertical.
As with other orthographic projections, all planes parallel to the picture plane maintain their size, shape, and proportions. In architectural graphics, however, the building section is the premier drawing for revealing and studying the relationship between the floors, walls, and roof structure of a building and the dimensions and vertical scale of the spaces defined by these elements.
A building section represents a vertical section of a building. After a vertical plane slices through the construction, we remove one of the parts. The building section is an orthographic projection of the portion that remains, cast onto a vertical picture plane parallel or coincident with the cutting plane. Use jogs or offsets in the cutting plane only when absolutely necessary. In order to convey a sense of depth and the existence of spatial volumes, we must utilize a hierarchy of line weights or a range of tonal values.
The technique we use depends on the scale of the building section, the drawing medium, and the required degree of contrast between solid matter and spatial void.
It is difficult to discern what is cut and what is seen in elevation beyond the plane of the cut. Note that these profiles are always continuous; they can never intersect at another cut line or terminate at a line of lesser weight. The farther back an element is from the plane of the section cut, the lighter the line weight should be.
These lines do not signify any change in form. They simply represent the visual pattern or texture of wall planes and other vertical surfaces parallel to the picture plane. This is especially important in large-scale sections, when large areas of black can carry too much visual weight or create too stark a contrast. In this value scheme, use progressively lighter values for elements as they recede into the third dimension.
Any tonal value given to cut elements should therefore continue into this mass. In this case, the section cut can be left white or be given a fairly light value to contrast with the drawing field.
The primary emphasis should remain on articulating the section cut and the relative depth of elements beyond the plane of the cut.
This alignment makes horizontal relationships easier to read and understand. A general knowledge of how buildings are constructed is therefore extremely beneficial when executing largescale sections. They are capable of describing the relationship of a proposed structure to the surrounding ground plane and disclosing whether a proposed structure rises from, sits on, floats above, or becomes embedded within the ground mass of the site.
In addition, section drawings can effectively illustrate the relationship between the interior spaces of a building and adjoining exterior spaces, as well as the relationships among a number of buildings. Unlike a plan, an elevation mimics our upright stance and offers a view that closely resembles the natural appearance of the object. Even though elevation views of vertical surfaces are closer to perceptual reality than either plans or section views, they cannot represent the spatial depth of a perspective drawing.
When we draw objects and surfaces in elevation, we must rely on graphic cues to convey depth, curvature, or obliqueness. Building elevations convey the external appearance of a building, compressed onto a single plane of projection. They therefore emphasize the exterior vertical faces of a building parallel to the picture plane and define its silhouette in space. They can also illustrate the texture and pattern of cladding materials, as well as the location, type, and dimensions of window and door openings.
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